1. INTRODUCTION
⌅Many engineering structures (dam, bridge, nuclear structure) are susceptible to develop Internal Sulfate Attack (ISA) by Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF). This reaction requires the presence of three main factors: high sulfate and aluminate contents, water, and a rise in temperature of concrete. This reaction leads a swelling of concrete materials generating microcrack, cracks, loss of material performances and structure damage.
The reaction mechanisms of DEF are complex. Brunetaud (11.
Brunetaud, X. (2005) Étude de l’influence de différents paramètres et
de leurs interactions sur la cinétique et l’amplitude de la réaction
sulfatique interne au béton. PhD thesis, École Centrale de Paris (http://www.theses.fr/2005ECAP1025).
)
has proposed a global mechanism, described in four phases, grouping
many theories to explain swelling (crystallisation pressure (22. Scherer, G. (1999) Crystallization in pores. Cem. Conc. Res. 29, 1347-1358. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00002-2.
), osmotic pressure (33. Mehta, P.K. (1973) Mechanism of expansion associated with ettringite formation. Cem. Conc. Res. 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(73)90056-2.
), homogeneous swelling (44. Scrivener, K.L.; Taylor, H.F.W. (1993). Delayed ettringite formation: a microstructural and microanalytical study. Adv. Cem. Res. 5 [20], 139-146. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1993.5.20.139.
), swelling at the Interfacial Transition Zone (55. Diamond, S. (1996) Delayed ettringite formation - Processes and problems. Cem. Conc. Comp. 18, 205-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/0958-9465(96)00017-0.
), electric double layer (66.
Li, G.; Le Bescop, P.; Moranville, M. (1995) Expansion mechanism
associated with the secondary formation of the U phase in cement-based
systems containing high amounts of Na2SO4. Cem. Conc. Res. 26 [2], 195-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(95)00199-9.
). The swelling can be represented by a sigmoidal curve of expansion of the time in various regime (11.
Brunetaud, X. (2005) Étude de l’influence de différents paramètres et
de leurs interactions sur la cinétique et l’amplitude de la réaction
sulfatique interne au béton. PhD thesis, École Centrale de Paris (http://www.theses.fr/2005ECAP1025).
).
This first phase corresponds to the dissolution of the primary
ettringite. Secondly and under certain conditions, the latent period can
begin (low expansion) with the precipitation of delayed Ettringite in
the microstructure (porosity, Interface Transition Zone (ITZ), Hadley
grain). When the tensile strength of concrete is reached due to internal
pressure, cracks were generated (end of latent period). Thirdly, after
an inflection point, the precipitation of delayed Ettringite in cracks,
leads to cracks propagation. It is the acceleration of expansion.
Finally, the deceleration of swelling occurs when one reactant is
consumed and/or when the cracks opening is sufficiently significant to
accommodate new products without generation of supplementary expansion.
Several
parameters have an influence on the development of DEF, and can be
divided into two groups: those related to the formulation of concrete
(binder nature (77.
Zhang, Z.; Olek, J.; Diamond, S. (2002) Studies on delayed ettringite
formation in heat-cured mortars II. Characteristics of cement that may
be susceptible to DEF. Cem. Conc. Res. 17, 1737-1742. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00894-3.
), Water / Cement ratio (88. Leklou, N. (2008) Contribution à la connaissance de la réaction sulfatique interne, PhD thesis, Université Toulouse III.
) and those related to the environment (temperature curing (99. Fu, Y.; Ding, J.; Beaudoin, J.J. (1997) Expansion of Portland cement mortar due to internal sulfate attack. Cem. Conc. Res. 27, 1299-1306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(97)00133-6.
, 1010.
Kchakech, B. (2016) Étude de l’influence de l’échauffement subi par un
béton sur le risque d’expansions associées à la réaction sulfatique
interne. PhD thesis Université Paris-Est.
), relative humidity (1111.
Graf, L. (2007) Effect of relative humidity on expansion and
microstructure of heat-Cured mortars. RD139, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA, (2007).
, 1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
)).
Main
consequences of DEF are expansion and cracks. They affect the
physicochemical and mechanical properties of the concrete. Cracks lead
to an increase of transfer properties and a decrease of mechanical
properties (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
)
and may lead to a loss of tightness, which is harmful for nuclear power
plants. Few data can be found in the literature on the evolution of
these properties as a function of the degree of advancement of DEF. The
present study had two objectives: first, to find a sensitive test
allowing DEF to be detected before cracking can be observed visually
and, second, to evaluate the evolution of the properties that impact the
tightness and also the durability of concrete. A test protocol to
accelerate DEF development was carried out and provided a good
representation of the reality on site (1313.
Jabbour, J. (2018) Méthodes d’essais de vieillissement accéléré des
bétons à l’échelle des ouvrages. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Saclay.
).
A large number of samples were used to characterize the impact of DEF
on concrete properties at different levels of expansion. Chemical tests
were performed to observe the initiation and the presence of DEF, while
physical and mechanical tests evaluated the impact of DEF on mechanical
and transfer properties.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
⌅2.1. Concrete
⌅2.1.1. Cement and aggregates
⌅In
this study, two cements and two types of aggregates were used. The
choice of cements focused on a CEMI 52.5N and a CEMII/A-LL 42.5 (1414.
NF EN 197-1 (2012). Ciment - Partie 1: Composition, spécifications et
critères de conformité des ciments courants, AFNOR, (2012).
), the main characteristics of which are summarized in Table 1.
Siliceous
and limestone aggregates were used as described in the Mix designs
subsection. These two cements have been used in previous studies and
show a high swelling potential in the case of DEF, in particular because
of their high sulfate, alkali and aluminate contents (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
, 1313.
Jabbour, J. (2018) Méthodes d’essais de vieillissement accéléré des
bétons à l’échelle des ouvrages. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Saclay.
).
Mass content (%) | CEM I 52.5 N | CEMII/A-LL 42.5 R |
---|---|---|
SiO2 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 K2O Na2O SO3 Total |
19.3 63.2 5.3 2.6 0.94 0.08 3.5 94.92 |
19.7 63.5 4.6 3.2 1.36 0.11 2.7 95.17 |
2.1.2. Mix designs
⌅The
mix designs have already been studied in other experimental works,
which make it possible to complete the database on the behavior of these
concretes (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
, 1313.
Jabbour, J. (2018) Méthodes d’essais de vieillissement accéléré des
bétons à l’échelle des ouvrages. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Saclay.
). However, some modifications were made in the nature of aggregates used. Indeed, the limestone aggregates used in (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
, 1313.
Jabbour, J. (2018) Méthodes d’essais de vieillissement accéléré des
bétons à l’échelle des ouvrages. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Saclay.
) contain a part of siliceous phase which is not qualified with respect to the risk of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR).
The
proportion of aggregates was determined with respect to Dreux method in
order to reproduce the same aggregate skeleton. A lot of tests are
performed in this study; the use of data from previous studies (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
, 1313.
Jabbour, J. (2018) Méthodes d’essais de vieillissement accéléré des
bétons à l’échelle des ouvrages. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Saclay.
) is therefore not useful. The formulations are detailed in Table 2. The sampling is done in (11 x 22) cm3 cylindrical molds (Figure 1).
(a) CEM II-Si | (b) CEM I-Ca | ||
---|---|---|---|
Material | Content (kg/m3) | Material | Content (kg/m3) |
CEM II/A-LL 42.5 R 0/0.315 0.315/1 1/4 4/8 8/12 12/20 Effective water |
350 264 151 254 145 399 616 188 |
CEM I 52.5 N 0/4 4/11.2 11.2/22.5 Effective water |
400 718 289 813 185 |
The
choice of siliceous and limestone aggregates respectively with CEMII
and CEMI was conducted to reproduce mix design representative of nuclear
structures. They have also been used for concrete blocks, as part of a
new platform (ODOBA project (1515. ODOBA project (2018) by IRSN https://www.irsn.fr/EN/Research/Research-organisation/Research-programmes/Odoba-project/Pages/ODOBA.aspx.
))
test developed by the Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute
(IRSN), to study the impact of DEF degradation at scale structure. The
concrete casting procedure used in this study followed the protocol of
French standards (1616.
NF P18-404 (1981) Bétons - Essais d›étude, de convenance et de contrôle
- Confection et conservation des éprouvettes, AFNOR (1981).
, 1717. NF P18-400 (1981) Bétons - Moules pour éprouvettes cylindriques et prismatiques, AFNOR (1981).
).
2.2. Conditioning
⌅French-recommended performance test for DEF-reactivity MLPC #66 was adopted (1818.
Méthode d’essai n°66 (2007). Réactivité d’un béton vis-à-vis d’une
réaction sulfatique interne. Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
(2007).
) in order to allow a rapid development of DEF.
This test comprises four stages: concrete mixing, heat treatment,
dry/wet cycles, and final immersion of samples in water at 20°C. The
thermal treatment at early age corresponded to that in Al Shamaa’s study
(1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
).
Once cast, specimens were placed in a climate chamber at controlled temperature and relative humidity. In container (Figure 2),
the heat treatment was applied for 7 days and comprised four stages: a
hold at 20°C, 95% RH for 2h, followed by a rise in temperature from 20°C
to 80°C, 95% RH at a rate of 2.5°C/h, stabilization at 80°C, 95% RH for
72h and a temperature decrease from 80°C to 20°C, 95% RH at a rate of
1°C/h (Figure 3a). The effective thermal energy (1010.
Kchakech, B. (2016) Étude de l’influence de l’échauffement subi par un
béton sur le risque d’expansions associées à la réaction sulfatique
interne. PhD thesis Université Paris-Est.
) generated by the heat treatment was 1395°C.h.
The selected dry/wet cycles correspond to the French-recommended performance test for DEF-reactivity MLPC #66 (1818.
Méthode d’essai n°66 (2007). Réactivité d’un béton vis-à-vis d’une
réaction sulfatique interne. Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
(2007).
). They are composed of two 14-day cycles:
drying at 38°C, HR < 30% for 7 days and humidification in water at
20°C for 7 days (Figure 3a).
These cycles allow the initiation of micro-cracking in the concrete and
thus accelerate the kinetics of DEF appearance within the concrete
without increasing the amplitude of the deformations (1919. Leklou, N.; Aubert, J-E. ; Escadeillas, G. (2013) Influence of various parameters on heat-induced internal sulphate attack. Europ. J. Env. Civ. Eng. 17, 141-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2012.755338.
).
The beginning of the degradation is considered to occur at 35 days, at
the end of the heat treatment and dry/wet cycles, in this case. During
the first 35 days, the concrete is considered to be in a state of
hydration where no expansion due to DEF develops. The storage water was
not renewed.
When the dry/wet cycles had been completed, the samples were stored in isothermal containers at 20°C (Figure 2), equipped with a pump to homogenize the temperature and the species present in the water.
The reference specimens underwent the same elaboration process but were not subjected to the heat treatment. During the first 7 days, the reference specimens were stored in water at 20°C. Dry/wet cycles were also applied (Figure 3b).
2.3. Testing protocols
⌅The mass and expansion monitoring were performed on three cylindrical test pieces 11 x 22 cm3 (Figures 1, 4 and 5.a). Studs were fixed directly on the mold and were therefore embedded in the concrete. Longitudinal expansion was measured by a digital micrometer having an accuracy of ±1 μm. The transversal expansion was measured by a micrometer having an accuracy of ±5 μm.
Microscopic observations were performed to ensure the presence of DEF in the concrete (Figure 5.b). SEM observation in BSE mode and chemical analysis with EDS were realized. When the swelling was initiated (expansion of 0.04%), measurement of the physical properties (Figure 4) revealed the impact of the micro-cracking generated on the transfer properties. Finally, measuring the mechanical properties gave some indications on the level of damage of the concrete subjected to these pathologies. Measurements of all the properties were made at different levels of expansion.
2.3.1. Physical characteristics
⌅Two physical tests were performed: electrical resistivity and gas permeability. The electrical resistivity test (Figure 5c) was performed on three (11 x 5) cm3 cylindrical samples obtained from an (11 x 22) cm3 one, in accordance to the Perfdub protocol (2020. PerfDuB (2017) Determination of the resistivity of saturated concrete. IREX (2017).
). This test was performed to complete the concrete database of this new test protocol. The gas permeability test (Figure 5d) was performed according to the standards (2121. XP P18-463, 2011. Bétons - Essai de perméabilité aux gaz sur béton durci, AFNOR (2011).
)
but the drying temperature was adapted to this study and did not
correspond to that proposed in the standard (105°C). It was set at 40°C
to avoid destabilizing the delayed Ettringite formed in hardened
concrete. The damage generated during drying is also reduced. Samples
are dried until mass stabilization (0.05% after 7 days).
2.3.2. Mechanical characteristics
⌅Two mechanical properties were measured: the compressive strength (Figure 5e) and the elastic modulus (Figure 5f). These properties were measured on three (11 x 22) cm3 cylindrical specimens according to the standards (2222. NF EN 12390-3 (2003) Essais pour béton durci - Partie 3: Résistance à la compression des éprouvettes, AFNOR, (2003).
, 2323.
NF EN 12390-13 (2014) Essai pour béton durci - Partie 13: détermination
du module sécant d’élasticité en compression, AFNOR (2014).
).
Table 3 summarizes the test performed in this study (number and size of specimens, reference and repeatability). Figure 5 shows all the tests performed on concrete materials.
Number / size of samples | Test references | Test repeatability (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
Mass and expansion | 3 (∅11 x 22) cm3 | - | |
Microscopic observations | / | - | |
Electrical resistivity | 3 (∅11 x 5) cm3 | Perfdub, 2017 | 10.5 |
Gas permeability | 3 (∅11 x 5) cm3 | XP P18-463 | 11.1 |
Compressive strength | 3 (∅11 x 22) cm3 | NF EN 12390-3 | 8.0 |
Modulus of elasticity | 3 (∅11 x 22) cm3 | NF EN 12390-13 | - |
3. RESULTS
⌅3.1. Expansion
⌅ Figure 6 shows the evolution of expansion as a function of time for the two
concretes and their corresponding reference concrete. French-recommended
performance test for DEF-reactivity MLPC #66 refers to a swelling limit
of 0.04% in an expansion test (1818.
Méthode d’essai n°66 (2007). Réactivité d’un béton vis-à-vis d’une
réaction sulfatique interne. Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées
(2007).
). This limit is provided up to 12 months test
duration. Beyond this threshold, there is a risk of the concrete to be
damaged by DEF. The reference formulations did not exceed the limit
threshold and showed a maximum swelling of 0.02%. The expansion curve
due to DEF can usually been described as a sigmoid (Figure 6), with three phases:
-
The latent period is characterized by the precipitation of DEF in the microstructure (porosity, Interface Transition Zone (ITZ), Hadley grain) (11. Brunetaud, X. (2005) Étude de l’influence de différents paramètres et de leurs interactions sur la cinétique et l’amplitude de la réaction sulfatique interne au béton. PhD thesis, École Centrale de Paris (http://www.theses.fr/2005ECAP1025).
). Expansion is small in this period. When the tensile strength of concrete is reached due to internal pressure, cracks were generated. The end of latent period is marked by the inflection point. -
The precipitation of DEF in cracks, leads to cracks propagation and so to the acceleration of expansion.
-
Finally, the deceleration of swelling occurs when one reactant is consumed and/or when the cracks opening is sufficiently significant to accommodate new products without generation of supplementary expansion (11. Brunetaud, X. (2005) Étude de l’influence de différents paramètres et de leurs interactions sur la cinétique et l’amplitude de la réaction sulfatique interne au béton. PhD thesis, École Centrale de Paris (http://www.theses.fr/2005ECAP1025).
).
Specimens
developing DEF showed significant swelling, around 0.9%, at the end of
the expansion for CEMII-Si. The end of the latent period, marked by the
inflexion point, was at 80 days for the CEMI-Ca and 110 days for the
CEMII-Si concrete. In comparison with the CEMII-Si concrete, CEMI-Ca
contained large limestone aggregates that lead to a decrease of the
latent period (1414.
NF EN 197-1 (2012). Ciment - Partie 1: Composition, spécifications et
critères de conformité des ciments courants, AFNOR, (2012).
).
This phenomenon is attributed to the higher bonding in case of
limestone aggregates with the cement matrix. In this case, cracks
generated at the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) during the heat
treatment due to a differential dilatation coefficient between paste and
aggregates, were reduced (2424.
Al Shamaa, M.; Lavaud, S.; Divet, L.; Colliat, J-B.; Nahas, G.;
Torrenti, J.-M. (2016) Influence of limestone filler and of the size of
the aggregates on DEF. Cem. Conc. Comp. 71, 175-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.05.007.
).
On one hand, the low cracking results in a lower volume available to
accommodate the new phases due to DEF without inducing cracking and
expansion. On the other hand, the low cracking leads to a decrease of
transfers properties in concrete and thus to delay DEF expansion. The
both phenomena are opposed. Indeed, a decrease in transfer properties
cannot explain the lowest latent period observed in the case of
limestone aggregates. The decrease in available volume caused by the low
cracking at the ITZ therefore seems to be the cause of the decrease in
latent period. In this case, the volume of DEF necessary to generate
pressure is reduced and it leads to a decrease of latent period.
The
final expansion of CEMI-Ca showed a swelling of around 0.6%. This lower
swelling was attributed to the presence of limestone aggregates, which
allowed the bond between aggregate and cement paste to be increased by
the formation of calcium hydrates around the aggregates (25-2725.
Grattan-Bellew, P.E.; Beaudoin, J.J.; Vallée, V-G. (1998) Effect of
aggregate particle size and composition on expansion of mortar bars due
to delayed ettringite formation. Cem. Conc. Res. 28 [8], 1147-1156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00084-2.
26.
Bentz, D.P.; Ardani, A.; Barrett, T.; Jones, S.Z.; Lootens, D.; Peltz,
M.A.; Sato, T.; Stutzman, P.E.; Tanesi, J.; Weiss, W.J. (2015)
Multi-scale investigation of the performance of limestone in concrete. Cons. Build. Mat. 75, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.042.
27. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
). The cracks generated by DEF at the ITZ were also reduced, allowing a lower final expansion (2525.
Grattan-Bellew, P.E.; Beaudoin, J.J.; Vallée, V-G. (1998) Effect of
aggregate particle size and composition on expansion of mortar bars due
to delayed ettringite formation. Cem. Conc. Res. 28 [8], 1147-1156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00084-2.
, 2727. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
).
Moreover, the difference between concretes composition with a higher
Water / Cement ratio (W/C) and a higher amount of cement could also
explain the higher swelling observed.
The longitudinal and
transversal expansion measurements are very close, and lead to fairly
isotropic expansions. These results are in accordance to the isotropy of
the swelling already observed in stress free conditions (2828.
Bouzabata, H.; Multon, S.; Sellier, A.; Houari, H. (2012) Effects of
restraint on expansion due to delayed ettringite formation. Cem. Concr. Res. 42, 1024-1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.04.001.
, 2929.
Al Shamaa, M.; Lavaud, S.; Divet, L.; Nahas, G.; Torrenti, J.M. (2015)
Influence of relative humidity on delayed ettringite formation. Cem. Concr. Comp. 58, 14-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.12.013.
). However, the transversal swelling is slightly lower on the CEMII-Si concrete at the end of expansion.
3.2. Microscopic observations
⌅The presence of delayed Ettringite was observed by SEM for each level of expansion.
Figure 7 shows the presence of delayed Ettringite in massive and compressed form for different levels of swelling (in red circle on the SEM images - BSE mode), in the CEMII-Si concrete where siliceous aggregates were used. The SEM images show that the initiation of swelling was induced by the formation of delayed ettringite in Hadley grains (Figure 7a) and at the ITZ (Figure 7b) (expansion of 0.05%). As expansion continued, delayed Ettringite continued to develop in these areas and in the porosity (Figure 7c and 7d). Then there was a separation from the cement paste all around the aggregates (Figure 7d). At the time corresponding to 0.25% of swelling, the cracks propagated from the ITZ to the porosity, causing an acceleration of swelling. When expansion continued, the presence of delayed Ettringite became increasingly significant, both in the cement paste (Figure 7e) and in the porosity (Figure 7f).
The
SEM observations on the CEMI-Ca were consistent with those observed on
the CEMII-Si concrete. However, cracking generated at the ITZ in the
case of limestone aggregates did not propagate all around the aggregate
particles, thus confirming the observations of Yang et al. (2727. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
).
For
each design, the presence of delayed Ettringite is found first at the
ITZ, in the Hadley grains and in the porosity. Ettringite then
propagates in and between these preferential zones, generating more and
more cracking. This cracking marks the acceleration of the expansion. As
mentioned above, the cracking generated at the ITZ depends on the
nature of the aggregates (2727. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
).
In the case of siliceous aggregates, cracking is generated all around
the aggregate but it only partially surrounds when limestone aggregates
are used. Ettringite then spreads in existing cracks. From SEM image in Figure 8a (Back-Scattered Electrons mode - BSE mode in Figure 8a), Figure 8b shows the presence of sulfur in the sample (yellow trace in Figure 8b),
proving the presence of delayed ettringite in concrete cracks. These
observations confirm that the cracks caused by the DEF are filled with
ettringite during the expansion. These results agree with the theory of
swelling proposed by Brunetaud (11.
Brunetaud, X. (2005) Étude de l’influence de différents paramètres et
de leurs interactions sur la cinétique et l’amplitude de la réaction
sulfatique interne au béton. PhD thesis, École Centrale de Paris (http://www.theses.fr/2005ECAP1025).
).
3.3. DEF Detection
⌅One of the first aims of this experimental program was to find a sensitive test allowing DEF detection. DEF can be detected if the evolution of one of the properties measured in this work is significant (sufficiently higher than the scatter on results) and only due to DEF expansion (not to concrete hydration). In this aim, a DEF detection criterion for physical and mechanical properties was developed, taking the effect of hydration (ageing) and experimental scatter into account (Equation [1]):
With:
Xi threshold(t) the threshold value of detection of the property measured in time,
X0 the initial value of the pathological concrete,
X0 ref the initial value of the reference concrete,
Xi ref(t) the value of the property of the reference concrete in time,
the average of the standard deviations obtained on the reference specimens.
These threshold values are used for the detection of DEF, presented in the charts for each pathological concrete (Figures 9 and 10). The evolution part of properties due to hydration was considered by the measurement of reference concretes at 35, 90 and 180 days (Figure 4). This evolution might be different between pathological and reference concrete due to the thermal treatment in case of pathological concretes. However, it provides an estimation of the evolution of the properties if no pathology was developed. The evolution of threshold values is considered as constant between two property measurements (35, 90 and 180 days).
3.4. Physical properties
⌅These tests were performed on three concrete samples. The average of the three measurements is represented on the charts. The associated standard deviations are also represented. The resistivity values and apparent permeability coefficients are given on time for the reference concretes (CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca) in Table 4.
CEMII-Si-ref | 35 d | 91 d | 180 d |
Elec. resist. (Ω.m) | 45.0 (2.2) | 55.0 (3.8) | 58.0 (4.9) |
Appar. permea. (10-18 m2) | 108.2 (16.8) | 103.6 (9.8) | 101.2 (27.3) |
CEMI-Ca-ref | 35 d | 90 d | 180 d |
Elec. resist. (Ω.m) | 44.0 (1.8) | 51.0 (1.7) | 55.0 (4.0) |
Appar. permea. (10-18 m2) | 100.5 (38.4) | 111.3 (13.5) | 119.2 (10.1) |
The electric resistivity tests (Figure 9a) showed a great sensitivity. Reference concretes CEMII-Si-ref and CEMI-Ca-ref had a resistivity of 45 Ω.m at 35 days. The concretes developing the pathology had a lower resistivity, around 35 Ω.m, at the same time, the heat treatment having caused additional damage. These values lead to a variation of about 4.2 Ω.m (test repeatability of 10.5%).
In Figure 8a, a progressive decrease in the resistivity is observed during the damage. A stabilization around 25 Ω.m is reached at 0.3% of expansion. This stagnancy could be due to the cracking caused by the pathology being gradually filled by ettringite. In contrast, for the reference concretes, the electrical resistivity increased significantly between 35 and 90 days. A resistivity increases of 25% was observed from day 35 to day 180, due to the evolution of the hydration reactions, illustrated by the increase in threshold values during the expansion.
With the chosen criterion, the detection of DEF by the electrical resistivity took place between 0.05 and 0.1% of expansion, during the latent period. Between these two expansion levels, the decrease of resistivity was sufficient to point out significant damage.
Figure 9b shows the evolution of the apparent air permeability coefficient as a function of the expansion generated by DEF. First, the reference concretes CEMII-Si-ref and CEMI-Ca-ref show no change in their coefficients of permeability on time of 110×10-18 m² (Table 4).
The CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca concretes have similar apparent gas permeability, respectively equal to 125×10-18 m² and 60×10-18 m² before expansion. These values lead to a variation of 14×10-18 m² and 6.6×10-18 m² (test repeatability of 11.1%) respectively for CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca
concretes. During expansion, the CEMII-Si concrete shows a strong
increase in the coefficient of permeability at the beginning of
expansion (permeability at 0.05% is double that before expansion). The
CEMI-Ca also shows an increase but it occurs later and is smaller. This
difference could be due to a higher damage of CEMII-Si concrete during
the thermal treatment (see 3.5) but also due to the mineralogical nature
of the aggregates used. The ITZ of concretes containing limestone
aggregates seem to be improved (25-2725.
Grattan-Bellew, P.E.; Beaudoin, J.J.; Vallée, V-G. (1998) Effect of
aggregate particle size and composition on expansion of mortar bars due
to delayed ettringite formation. Cem. Conc. Res. 28 [8], 1147-1156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00084-2.
26.
Bentz, D.P.; Ardani, A.; Barrett, T.; Jones, S.Z.; Lootens, D.; Peltz,
M.A.; Sato, T.; Stutzman, P.E.; Tanesi, J.; Weiss, W.J. (2015)
Multi-scale investigation of the performance of limestone in concrete. Cons. Build. Mat. 75, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.042.
27. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
). Cracks due to DEF passing through this interface are reduced in the case of limestone aggregates (2727. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
).
There may be fewer preferential paths in the CEMI-Ca concrete, causing a
smaller increase of permeability at early expansion. When the
acceleration phase of the pathology is reached, at around 0.2% of
swelling, the permeability is significantly impacted. This drastic
increase can be attributed to the formation of more and more percolating
paths within the material, generating a large increase of gas flow
during the test. These results are therefore in agreement with those of
Al Shamaa et al. (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
).
Depending
on the chosen criterion, the detection of DEF by the measurement of gas
permeability takes place during the latent period before 0.05%
expansion for CEMII-Si concrete and at the beginning of the acceleration
phase, between 0.17 and 0.29%, for CEMI-Ca concrete. However, the range
of expansion at the detection for CEMI-Ca concrete is excessive
regarding the appearance of visual defects of about 0.12% of expansion (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
, 3030.
Bruneteaud, X.; Divet, L.; Damidot, D. (2008) Impact of unrestrained
Delayed Ettringite Formation-induced expansion on concrete mechanical
properties. Cem. Conc. Res. 38, 1343-1348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.05.005.
).
3.5. Mechanical properties
⌅The compressive strength measurements show the impact of the heat treatment on the mechanical properties. The compressive strength and static elasticity modulus values are given on time for the reference concretes (CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca) in Table 5.
CEMII-Si-ref | 35 d | 91 d | 180 d |
Comp. strength (MPa) | 34.0 (2.1) | 34.1 (1.3) | 38.3 (0.5) |
Static modul. (GPa) | 40.4 (2.4) | 39.4 (0.4) | 43.3 (0.9) |
CEMI-Ca-ref | 35 d | 90 d | 180 d |
Comp. strength (MPa) | 43.5 (1.5) | 48.2 (1.4) | 49.0 (0.3) |
Static modul. (GPa) | 31.9 (0.5) | 32.1 (0.5) | 33.0 (0.6) |
The
reference concretes CEMII-Si-ref and CEMI-Ca-ref have compressive
strengths of 34 MPa and 44 MPa, respectively, at 35 days. The
compressive strengths of CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca are lower, at 23 MPa and
29 MPa, respectively. These values lead to a variation of about 2 MPa
(test repeatability of 8%). The reduction of the compressive strength by
the heat treatment can be explained by the occurrence of damage in
concrete and by the variation of hydrates (2424.
Al Shamaa, M.; Lavaud, S.; Divet, L.; Colliat, J-B.; Nahas, G.;
Torrenti, J.-M. (2016) Influence of limestone filler and of the size of
the aggregates on DEF. Cem. Conc. Comp. 71, 175-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.05.007.
).
The compressive strength of CEMI-Ca and CEMI-Ca-ref concretes remains
higher than those of other concretes and increases with time following
the hydration process (Table 5).
This difference is explained by the fact that these concretes contain a
larger amount of cement and a lower W/C ratio, and also because the
presence of limestone aggregates in the formulation improves the ITZ.
The CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca show compressive strength that remains stable
during the initiation of the pathology. However, during the acceleration
phase, the strength decreases spontaneously and then stabilizes at the
end of the acceleration period (Figure 10a).
The decrease of compressive strength is 30% and 20% for the CEMII-Si
and CEMI-Ca concretes, respectively, at the half of expansion.
Depending
on the chosen criterion, the detection of DEF by the measurement of
compressive strength takes place between 0.11 and 0.29% of expansion, at
the beginning of the acceleration phase. This range of expansion is
also excessive regarding the appearance of visual defects (1212.
Al Shamaa, M. (2012) Étude du risque de développement d’une réaction
sulfatique interne et de ses conséquences dans les bétons de structure
des ouvrages nucléaires. PhD thesis, Université Paris-Est.
, 3030.
Bruneteaud, X.; Divet, L.; Damidot, D. (2008) Impact of unrestrained
Delayed Ettringite Formation-induced expansion on concrete mechanical
properties. Cem. Conc. Res. 38, 1343-1348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.05.005.
).
The evolutions of elastic modulus for CEMII-Si-ref and CEMI-Ca-ref reference concretes show small changes between 35 and 190 days (Table 5). The modulus is still higher for CEMII-Si-ref concrete (equal to 40 GPa) than for CEMI-Ca-ref concrete (31 GPa) at 35 days. In comparison with reference concretes, only CEMII-RSI-Si concrete shows a decrease of elastic modulus caused by the heat treatment. In this case, the lower compressive strength and the nature of aggregate used could explain this higher damage.
In Figure 10b,
CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca concretes with DEF reveal that the modulus
decreases progressively during the expansion. A significant decrease in
the modulus is observed for swelling of around 0.2% during the
acceleration phase of the pathology. At this time, the modulus decreases
by 40% and 50% for the CEMII-Ca and CEMI-Si concretes, respectively.
The loss of elastic modulus seems to be proportional to the expansion
rate caused by the pathology. However, the stress exerted in this test
reaches one third of the compressive strength. In addition, a 3 MPa
pre-loading strength is applied during the measurement. When the strong
loss of compressive strength occurs (of about 0.2% of expansion), the
value of the elastic modulus becomes difficult to be quantified. These
results are not in agreement with those of Al Shamaa et al., who show no
decrease of elastic modulus during the latent period (3131.
Al Shamaa, M.; Lavaud, S.; Divet, L.; Nahas, G.: Torrenti, J.M. (2014)
Coupling between mechanical and transfer properties and expansion due to
DEF in a concrete of a nuclear power plant. Nucl. Eng. Desig. 266, 70-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2013.10.014.
).
Depending on the chosen criterion, the detection of DEF by the measurement of elastic modulus takes place between 0.05 and 0.1% of expansion, during the latent period.
4. DISCUSSION
⌅With the used tests in this experimental program, it possible to detect DEF at the beginning of the expansion, during the latent phase. Table 6 summarizes all the expansion values at the time of detection of DEF presented in the experimental results.
Expansion at detection (%) | DEF phase | ||
---|---|---|---|
CEMII-Si | CEMI-Ca | ||
Electrical resistivity | 0.05 - 0.11 | 0.05 - 0.11 | Latent phase |
Gas permeability | 0.05 | 0.17 - 0.29 | Latent phase |
Elastic modulus | 0.05 - 0.11 | 0.05 - 0.11 | Latent phase |
Compressive strength | 0.11 - 0.25 | 0.17 - 0.29 | Acceleration phase |
Microscopic
observations showed the evolution of ettringite formation during
expansion in the material. Some physical measurements related to the
transfer properties allowed DEF to be detected during the latent phase
and measurements of the gas permeability and electrical resistivity
appear to provide a good durability indicator for the detection of DEF.
CEMI-Ca concrete showed a later increase in permeability than CEMII-Si.
The improvement of the ITZ in the case of limestone aggregates seems to
reduce the cracks generated at this interface during DEF damage (2727. Yang, R.; Lawrence, C.D.; Sharp, J.H. (1999) Effect of type of aggregate on delayed ettringite formation. Adv. Cem. Res. 11 [3], 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.1999.11.3.119.
).
Moreover, a higher damage of CEMII-Si concrete caused by the thermal
treatment has been observed by a loss of elastic modulus, thus, allowing
the cracks in the concrete to be less percolating.
The electrical
resistivity tests showed significant sensitivity (test repeatability of
10.5%), the detection being effective from the latent phase. The
electrical resistivity decreased by 16% and 10% for the CEMII-Si and
CEMI-Ca concretes, respectively, for expansions of 0.12% and 0.19%.
Since the electrical resistivity of the reference concretes increased
substantially from 35 days to 180 days (25%). The decrease in the
resistivity associated with the development of the pathology seems to be
significant. However, its sensitivity to water content could make
electrical resistivity difficult to use for damaged structures (3232.
Rivard, P.; Saint-Pierre, F. (2009) Assessing alkali-silica reaction
damage to concrete with non-destructive methods: From the lab to the
field. Cons. Buil. Mat. 23, 902-909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.04.013.
).
Elastic modulus measurements also detected the presence of DEF during the latent period. A continuous decrease was observed throughout the development of the pathology. A 15% loss of modulus associated with a swelling of 0.11% was observed for each concrete. The compressive strength of the CEMII-Si and CEMI-Ca concretes damaged by DEF decreased by 26% and 14% respectively for expansions of 0.25% and 0.29%. This loss of compressive strength in the half phase of acceleration the detection of the pathology. Three durability indicators made it possible to detect DEF earlier, during the latent phase for laboratory specimens, the gas permeability, the electrical resistivity and the elastic modulus.
Figure 11a shows the evolution of the damage as a function of the expansion for the two concretes damaged by DEF. The damage was proportional to the expansion due to DEF. The damage was calculated from the elastic modulus according to Equation [2]:
With:
Ei elastic modulus measured during DEF development,
E0 elastic modulus for concrete reference (without degradation).
A study (3333.
Martin, R-P.; Sanchez, L.; Fournier, B.; Toutlemonde, F. (2017)
Evaluation of different techniques for the diagnosis & prognosis of
Internal Swelling Reaction (ISR) mechanisms in concrete. Construct. Build. Mater. 156, 956-964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.047.
),
coupling Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) and DEF on concrete shows an
almost linear trend. The loss of damage as a function of the expansion
is in accordance with these results (3333.
Martin, R-P.; Sanchez, L.; Fournier, B.; Toutlemonde, F. (2017)
Evaluation of different techniques for the diagnosis & prognosis of
Internal Swelling Reaction (ISR) mechanisms in concrete. Construct. Build. Mater. 156, 956-964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.047.
).
Figure 11b shows the evolution of air permeability (ratio between apparent value measured during DEF degradation and reference value (Table 4)) as a function of the damage presented in Figure 11a for the two concretes. The increase in permeability seems to be an exponential function of the damage. This exponential trend is harder to see for CEMII-Si concrete. However, the damage caused by the heat treatment could explain the earlier appearance of percolating path for CEMII-Si concrete. For the investigated concretes, the use of concrete composition with a lower W/C ratio and containing limestone aggregates seems to improve the durability of DEF affected concrete. The percolating paths in CEMI-Ca concrete specimens would appear at around 20% of damage, at the beginning of the acceleration phase of the pathology. For the CEMI-Si concrete, the percolating paths appear for slight damage, around 7%, causing a considerable increase of the air flow through the material.
5. CONCLUSIONS
⌅An experimental investigation has been carried out to characterize DEF impact on measurable physical and mechanical properties of concrete. The second aim was to evaluate the evolution of the properties that have an impact on the tightness of concrete. Several physicochemical and mechanical properties were measured by the use of a large quantity of samples. These tests were performed on two concretes showing a high swelling potential. Original results have been obtained:
-
Electrical resistivity and gas permeability are sensitive to the expansion generated by DEF. However, the electrical resistivity could be difficult to use for damaged structures.
-
For a same expansion, the apparent permeability increase is greater for concrete containing siliceous aggregate than for concrete with limestone aggregate.
-
The measurement of the elastic modulus and electrical resistivity seems to allow the detection of DEF during the latent period.
-
Three durability indicators seem to be relevant for the detection and the monitoring of pathology: gas permeability, electrical resistivity, and elastic modulus.
-
For the investigated concretes, the loss of tightness related to the presence of DEF occurs for less than 20% of damage.