1. INTRODUCTION
⌅Portland
cement (PC), the ubiquitous construction binder, has a considerable
environmental impact. Despite its many excellent technical properties (11.
Mehta, P.K.; Monteiro, P.J.M. (2014) Concrete: microstructure,
properties, and materials. fourth ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York,
USA.
), its high carbon footprint and embodied energy
have led to an ongoing search for lower-environmental-impact alternative
binders (2-102. Glasser, F.P.; Zhang, L. (2001) High-performance cement matrices based on calcium sulfoaluminate - belite compositions. Cem. Concr. Res. 31 [12], 1881-1886. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00649-4.
3.
Canbek, O.; Shakouri, S.; Erdoğan, S.T. (2020) Laboratory production of
calcium sulfoaluminate cements with high industrial waste content. Cem. Concr. Compos. 106, 103475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103475.
4. Scrivener, K.; Martirena, F.; Bishnoi, S.; Maity, S. (2018) Calcined clay limestone cements (LC3). Cem. Concr. Res. 114, 49-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.08.017.
5.
Aziz, A.; Driouich, A.; Bellil, A.; Ali, M.B.; Mabtouti, S.E.L.;
Felaous, K.; Achab, M.; El Bouari, A. (2021) Optimization of new
eco-material synthesis obtained by phosphoric acid attack of natural
Moroccan pozzolan using Box-Behnken Design. Ceram. Int. 47 [23], 33028-33038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.08.203.
6.
Pachideh, G.; Gholhaki, M.; Ketabdari, H. (2020) Effect of pozzolanic
wastes on mechanical properties, durability and microstructure of the
cementitious mortars. J. Build. Eng. 29, 101178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101178.
7.
Sumesh, M.; Alengaram, U.J.; Jumaat, M.Z.; Mo, K.H.; Singh, R.; Nayaka,
R.R.; Srinivas, K. (2021) Chemo-physico-mechanical characteristics of
high-strength alkali-activated mortar containing non-traditional
supplementary cementitious materials. J. Build. Eng. 44, 103368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103368.
8. Davidovits, J. (2008) Geopolymer chemistry and applications, third ed., Institut Géopolymère, St. Quentin, France.
9.
Borštnar, M.; Daneu, N.; Dolenec, S. (2020) Phase development and
hydration kinetics of belite-calcium sulfoaluminate cements at different
curing temperatures. Ceram. Int. 46 [18], 29421-29428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.05.029.
10.
Habert, G.; d’Espinose de Lacaillerie, J.B.; Roussel, N. (2011) An
environmental evaluation of geopolymer based concrete production:
reviewing current research trends. J. Clean. Prod. 19 [11], 1229-1238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.03.012.
).
Many of these systems are low-carbon in comparison to PC but not
carbon-neutral or negative, or require higher-than-room temperature
curing, or sequester carbon into a prefabricated block, limiting
versatility (11-1411. Meyer, V.; de Cristofaro, N.; Bryant, J.; Sahu, S. (2018) Solidia cement an example of carbon capture and utilization. Key Eng. Mater. 761, 197-203. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.761.197.
12. Carbon Built. Retrieved from: https://www.carbonbuilt.com (accessed 03 January 2023).
13. Criado, Y.A.; Arias, B.; Abanades, J.C. (2018) Effect of the carbonation temperature on the CO2 carrying capacity of CaO. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 57, 12595-12599. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.8b02111.
14.
Niven, R.; Monkman, G.S.; Forgeron, D. (2012) US Patent 8,845,940 B2,
Carbon dioxide treatment of concrete upstream from product mold.
Retrieved from: https://patents.google.com/patent/US8845940B2/en.
).
A carbon-neutral/negative yet practical binder needs to use a low-cost,
powder with a low carbon footprint, to be able to trap large amounts of
CO2, to be cast on site, and yield a reaction product with sufficient physical and mechanical properties. Recent studies (15-1815. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
16.
Erdoğan, S.T. (2017) Oxalate acid-base cements as a means of carbon
storage. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2017, New Orleans,
11-15 December 2017.
17. Erdoğan, S.T. (2019) Magnesium oxalate
cements for carbon reuse. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2019,
San Francisco, 9-13 December 2019.
18. İçinsel, N. (2020) Development
of magnesium oxalate cements with recycled portland cement paste. M.S.
Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.
)
have proposed magnesium oxalate cement (MgOx) as a new alternative to
PC. MgOx is an acid-base cement, similar to the well-known magnesium
phosphate cements (MPC) (19-2219.
Liu, Y.; Chen, B. (2019) Research on the preparation and properties of a
novel grouting material based on magnesium phosphate cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 214, 516-526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.158.
20.
Haque, M.A.; Chen, B.; Maierdan, Y. (2022) Influence of supplementary
materials on the early age hydration reactions and microstructural
progress of magnesium phosphate cement matrices. J. Clean. Prod. 333, 130086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130086.
21.
Haque, M.A.; Chen, B.; Javed, M.F.; Jalal, F.E. (2022) Evaluating the
mechanical strength prediction performances of fly ash-based MPC mortar
with artificial intelligence approaches. J. Clean. Prod. 355, 131815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131815.
22.
Haque, M.A.; Chen, B.; Liu, Y.; Farasat Ali Shah, S.; Ahmad, M.R.
(2020) Improvement of physico-mechanical and microstructural properties
of magnesium phosphate cement composites comprising with Phosphogypsum. J. Clean. Prod. 261, 121268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121268.
). MPCs are made by reacting salts of phosphoric acid, like KH2PO4,
with dead-burned MgO, and possess useful properties such as rapid
setting, high early and ultimate strength, the ability to set and harden
at very low temperatures, low shrinkage, high abrasion resistance, etc.
(2323. Yang, N.; Shi, C.; Yang, J.; Chang, Y. (2014) Research progresses in magnesium phosphate cement based materials. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 26 [10]. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000971.
).
The acid-base neutralization results in a paste with near-neutral pH.
These properties lend MPCs to diverse fields like biomaterials, toxic
waste stabilization, and concrete repair (24-2624. Mestres, G.; Ginebra, M.P. (2011) Novel magnesium phosphate cements with high early strength and antibacterial properties. Acta Biomater. 7 [4], 1853-1861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2010.12.008.
25.
Buj, I.; Torras, J.; Casellas, D.; Rovira, M.; de Pablo, J. (2009)
Effect of heavy metals and water content on the strength of magnesium
phosphate cements. J. Hazard. Mater. 170 [1], 345-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.04.091.
26.
Yang, Q.; Zhu, B.; Wu, X. (2000) Characteristics and durability test of
magnesium phosphate cement-based material for rapid repair of concrete. Mater. Struct. 33, 229-234. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02479332.
). MgOx relies on acid-base reactions between oxalic acid salts and dead-burned MgO. Oxalic acid (C2H2O4) is a multi-carbon chemical that is relatively easy to obtain from captured CO2 (27-3327. König, M.; Lin, S-H.; Vaes, J.; Pant, D.; Klemm, E. (2021) Integration of aprotic CO2 reduction to oxalate at a Pb catalyst into a GDE flow cell configuration. Faraday Discuss. 230, 360-374. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0FD00141D.
28. Meurs, J.H.H. Method of preparing oxalic acid. WO2016124646A1, 2016. Retrieved from https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2016124646A1/da.
29. Chen, A.; Lin, B.L. (2018) A simple framework for quantifying electrochemical CO2 fixation. Joule. 2 [4], 594-606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.02.003.
30. Subramanian, S.; Athira, K.R.; Kulandainathan, M.A. (2020) New insights into the electrochemical conversion of CO2 to oxalate at stainless steel 304 L cathode. J. CO 2 Util. 36, 105-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2019.10.011.
31. Fischer, J.; Lehmann, T.; Heitz, E. (1981) The production of oxalic-acid from CO2 and H2O. J. Appl. Electrochem. 11, 743-750. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00615179.
32.
Ikeda, S.; Takagi, T.; Ito, K. (1987) Selective formation of formic
acid, oxalic acid, and carbon monoxide by electrochemical reduction of
carbon dioxide. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 60 [7], 2517-2522. https://doi.org/10.1246/bcsj.60.2517.
33. Angamuthu, R.; Byers, P.; Lutz, M.; Spek, A.L.; Bouwman, E. (2010) Electrocatalytic CO2 conversion to oxalate by a copper complex. Science. 327 [5963], 313-315. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177981.
). Schuler et al. (3434. Schuler, E.; Demetriou, M.; Shiju, N.R.; Gruter, G.J.M. (2021) Towards Sustainable Oxalic Acid from CO2 and Biomass. ChemSusChem. 14 [18], 3636-3664. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202101272.
) compared many methods to produce oxalic acid (H2C2O4) or oxalate (C2O4 2-). Over ten of these methods started with CO2 and were assessed, using green chemistry principles, as being among the most sustainable paths to oxalic acid. The “CO2 equivalent”/cation is 2/1 (molar) in Ca- and Mg-oxalates. This is
higher than the 1/1 ratio in Ca/Mg carbonates allowing greater amounts
of CO2 to be bound, and a low-carbon cement to be achieved. Ca- and Mg- oxalates also show low solubility in water (3535. Lide, D.R. (2007) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, 88th ed., CRC Press, Florida, USA.
).
Calcium phosphate cements are widely reported, mainly as biomaterials.
The precipitation of calcium oxalate crystals (CaOx) has been studied
widely as they form the most prevalent type of kidney stones (3636.
Kaufman, D.W.; Kelly, J.P.; Curhan, G.C.; Anderson, T.E.; Dretler,
S.P.; Preminger, G.M.; Cave, D.R. (2008) Oxalobacter formigenes may
reduce the risk of calcium oxalate kidney stones. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 19 [6], 1197-1203. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2007101058.
).
CaOx precipitation can also be used for water proofing portland cement
concrete by forming a thin surface film or by filling pores (3737.
Ding, Z.; Fang, Y.; Su, J.F.; Hong, S.; Dong, B. (2020) In situ
precipitation for the surface treatment and repair of cement-based
materials. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 34 [11], 1233-1240. https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2019.1705143.
, 3838.
Arvaniti, E.C.; Lioliou, M.G.; Paraskeva, C.A.; Payatakes, A.C.;
Østvold, T.; Koutsoukos, P.G. (2010) Calcium oxalate crystallization on
concrete heterogeneities. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 88 [11], 1455-1460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2009.09.013.
).
However, there are no accounts of calcium oxalate cements. Ca analogues
of MgOx, such as those made with hydrated lime as the basic powder, can
also set and harden, but high water demand and dimensional stability
issues lead to high porosity and low strength. MgOx are rapid setting,
can reach medium-to-high ultimate strength, and are water-resistant (1515. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
). However, like MPCs, they use dead-burned MgO. Since low-cost MgO is typically obtained by decarbonating MgCO3 and burning MgO at ~1500 °C leads to significant fuel-related
emissions, MgOx cements can be made low carbon but not carbon negative (1515. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
).
Replacement of dead-burned MgO with a less carbon-intense waste or
natural material is needed to further decrease the carbon footprint of
oxalate cements. Luo et al. (3939.
Luo, Z.; Ma, Y.; He, H.; Mu, W.; Zhou, X.; Liao, W.; Ma, H. (2021)
Preparation and characterization of ferrous oxalate cement - A novel
acid-base cement. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 104 [2], 1120-1131. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17511.
)
recently reported a ferrous oxalate cement paste made with copper slag
and oxalic acid. Medium to high compressive strengths were measured on 2
cm cube paste specimens but water resistance or reaction temperatures
of the pastes were not reported. Various studies on MPCs have found that
dead burned MgO can be replaced with up to 50 % industrial byproducts
such blast furnace slag, steel slag, red mud, or fly ash, without
negative effects on mechanical properties and/or water resistance (40-4340.
Liu, Y.; Chen, B. (2019) Research on the preparation and properties of a
novel grouting material based on magnesium phosphate cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 214, 516-526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.158.
41.
He, Z.H.; Zhu, H.N.; Shi, J.Y.; Li, J.; Yuan, Q.; Ma, C. (2022)
Multi-scale characteristics of magnesium potassium phosphate cement
modified by metakaolin. Ceram. Int. 48 [9], 12467-12475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.01.112.
42.
Ding, Z.; Dong, B.; Xing, F.; Han, N.; Li, Z. (2012) Cementing
mechanism of potassium phosphate based magnesium phosphate cement. Ceram. Int. 38 [8], 6281-6288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.04.083.
43.
Ahmad, M.R.; Chen, B.; Yu, J. (2019) A comprehensive study of basalt
fiber reinforced magnesium phosphate cement incorporating ultrafine fly
ash. Compos. B. Eng. 168, 204-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.12.065.
).
This study attempts to partially or fully replace dead-burned MgO with
ground granulated blast furnace slag, as an alkaline powder with a low
carbon footprint and low cost.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
⌅2.1. Materials
⌅Low-grade
magnesia (MgO) was purchased in powder form. As this powder dissolves
too quickly in an acidic solution, it was calcined for 1 h at 1500 °C to
obtain dead-burned magnesia (MgO1500) (4444.
Bilginer, B.A. (2018) Development of magnesium potassium phosphate
cement pastes and mortars incorporating fly ash. M.S. Thesis, Middle
East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.
). After
calcination, the hard mass obtained was ground to a powder. Ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) was received, in powder form, from
Kardemir Iron and Steel Plant in Karabük, Turkey. The magnesia and slag
were used as the alkaline component of the acid-base mixtures. The fly
ash (FA) used was received from Afşin-Elbistan Thermal Power Plant in
Turkey. Technical grade oxalic acid dihydrate (OxAc) was received from
Balmumcu Chemical Industries in Ankara, Turkey. Reagent grade borax, Na2B4O7·10H2O
(Merck), was also used, as a set retarder. The oxide compositions of
the main ingredients (MgO, MgO1500, FA, and GGBFS) determined using
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF, Rigaku ZSX Primus), are provided
in Table 1.
Oxide | Mass (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
MgO | MgO1500 | FA | GGBFS | |
MgO | 81.30 | 82.80 | 2.26 | 5.90 |
SiO2 | 9.35 | 10.60 | 40.09 | 39.70 |
CaO | 1.74 | 1.85 | 21.24 | 36.90 |
Al2O3 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 16.24 | 10.50 |
Fe2O3 | 0.60 | 0.72 | 7.21 | 1.10 |
CO2 | 6.89 | 3.82 | - | - |
NiO | 0.12 | 0.13 | - | - |
SO3 | - | - | 6.71 | 1.20 |
TiO2 | - | - | 0.77 | 0.68 |
P2O5 | - | - | 0.40 | 0.01 |
K2O | - | - | 1.33 | 0.78 |
MnO | - | - | - | 2.20 |
Density (g/cm3) | 3.10 | 3.40 | 2.00 | 3.00 |
Loss on ignition (%) | 8.0 | 0 | 4.0 | 0.5 |
Blaine Fineness (cm2/g) | 10000 | 2000 | 3300 | 4100 |
As expected, calcination does not greatly affect the oxide composition of the magnesia but mainly decreases the measured CO2 content. Loss on ignition measurements parallel this loss upon calcination. Nevertheless, MgO1500 still contains some CO2. This could be due to some organic impurities in the as-received magnesia forming carbon upon calcination or due to problems with detecting/measuring the lightweight (and low x-ray fluorescence yield) element carbon with semi-quantitative XRF.
The fly ash is “high-lime” as per ASTM C 618 (45) with ~21 % CaO and > 50 % SiO2+Fe2O3+Al2O3. More than 3 million tons/year of this ash are produced, and its high SO3 content makes it unsuitable for use as a pozzolan in PC systems. The slag is “hydraulically active” with (CaO + MgO) / SiO2 > 1.0, as per EN 197-1 (4646. CEN 197-1. (2012) Cement - Part 1: Compositions and conformity criteria for common cements. Brussels, Belgium.
). The fly ash was used to produce a low-cost intermediate oxalic acid salt (FAOx), analogous to KH2PO4 used in magnesium phosphate cements. It was used to provide oxalate ions to the system in a controlled fashion. Figure 1 summarizes the production method for FAOx.
FA:OxAc:water are mixed at 1.0:1.5:1.0 by mass as in (1515. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
).
The resulting paste heats up and within minutes sets into a strong but
water-soluble solid. The paste is oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h,
crushed, and then ground for 45 min in a laboratory ball mill to obtain a
powder. The specific gravity of FAOx was measured as 1.96. Figure 2 shows the mineralogies of the raw materials and FAOx, determined using
x-ray powder diffraction (XRD). Periclase is the main phase in MgO1500
with major peaks at ~42.5 and ~37 º2θ. Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) is formed by the solid-state reaction of MgO and SiO2 at high temperatures (4747. Brindley, G.W.; Hayami, R. (1965) Kinetics and mechanism of formation of forsterite (Mg2SiO4) by solid state reaction of MgO and SiO2. Phil. Mag. 12 [117], 505-514. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786436508218896.
). FAOx shows peaks for whewellite (~24 º2θ) and quartz (~27 º2θ). Whewellite (CaC2O4·H2O)
is a calcium oxalate formed by calcium in the FA used and oxalic acid.
Quartz carries from the fly ash itself. The slag is amorphous, with a
characteristic hump around ~30 º2θ.
The particle size distributions for MgO1500, slag, and FAOx were measured using laser diffraction (Malvern Mastersizer 2000) on dry powders (Figure 3). All three powders have median particle sizes 10-20 µm.
2.2. Methods
⌅The mixture proportions given in Table 2 were used to prepare mortar and paste (same proportions but without sand) samples for various characterization tests.
Mixture | FAOx | MgO1500 | Slag | Borax* | Sand | Water |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MgOx-6/4 | 6 | 4 | - | 0.5 | 20 | 3 |
MgOx-7/3 | 7 | 3 | - | 0.5 | 20 | 3 |
SlOx-6/4 | 6 | - | 4 | 1 | 20 | 3 |
SlOx-7/3 | 7 | - | 3 | 1 | 20 | 3 |
MgSlOx | 7 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 20 | 3 |
*i.e. 10 % of binder (FAOx+Slag) mass for SlOx |
The mixture proportions in Table 2 were chosen to achieve a low estimated carbon footprint and adequate
mechanical performance. The FAOx-to-alkaline binder ratio influences the
strength and water resistance of oxalate binders and a ratio close to 2
is close to optimum when MgO1500 is used (1515. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
). The calcination of MgCO3 to produce 1 g MgO emits ~1.1 g chemical CO2. Assuming 0.4 g fuel-related CO2 is released to obtain dead-burned MgO (at a temperature similar to PC clinker production) (4848. Benhelal, E.; Zahedi, G.; Shamsaei, E.; Bahadori, A. (2013) Global strategies and potentials to curb CO2 emissions in cement industry. J. Clean. Prod. 51, 142-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.10.049.
), the total emitted CO2 becomes ~1.5 g per 1 g of MgO1500. FAOx (1 part FA and 1.5 parts OxAc) has FA:C2O4 2- ~1.0, which means half of the FAOx mass is equivalent CO2.
Hence, carbon neutrality/negativity can be achieved only when
FAOx:MgO1500 ≥ 3.0. Slag has a chemical carbon footprint of zero but
operations like grinding make it slightly positive. Hence the two SlOx
mixtures and the MgSlOx mixture in Table 2 may be carbon-negative but the two MgOx mixtures are not. Acid-base
mixtures exhibit different behavior than portland cement pastes in the
fresh state. Their stronger shear-thinning character and their short
setting times do not provide a long time period over which flow is
constant (especially for SlOx mixtures). The water-to-binder ratio (W/B)
of 0.30 chosen for all mixtures is roughly the lowest value that allows
adequate mixing and compaction of fresh mortars. The sand-to-binder
ratio was chosen as 2.0 to give a paste/aggregate ratio similar to that
in standard PC mortars. 5 % borax was used in MgOx to sufficiently
retard setting. SlOx mixtures react more rapidly than MgOx, so a higher
amount of borax was needed.
2.2.1. Compressive strength development
⌅50-mm mortar cubes were tested as in ASTM C109 (4949.
ASTM C109. (2020) Standard test method for compressive strength of
hydraulic cement mortars (using 2-in. or [50 mm] cube specimens). ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
), but sample preparation slightly differed in that the mixture was mixed by hand in batches of ~300 cm3.
FAOx was first mixed with water to obtain a paste to which sand was
added, followed by further mixing and the addition of the alkaline
powder (MgO1500 or slag). The samples were demolded after 1 h, cured at
~24 °C and ~35 % RH, and tested at 4 h, 1 d, 7 d, and 28 d using a 250
kN Universal Testing Machine, at a loading rate of 1.5 kN/s.
2.2.2. Investigation of mineralogy and microstructure
⌅XRD analysis (BTX II, Olympus, Japan) was performed between 5 and 55 °2θ, with a resolution of 0.25 °2θ, on < 150 µm powders obtained from reacted pastes at 1, 7, and 28 d to investigate mineralogical changes due to reactions. Cu Kα radiation was selected with a current of 330 μA and a tube voltage of 30 kV. The nature and quantity of solid phases in the reacted pastes were also investigated using thermogravimetric analysis, TGA (SDT 650, TA Instruments, USA), for paste samples air-cured for 1 d and 35 d by heating in a N2 environment to 900 °C at 20 °C/min. The microstructures of the reacted pastes were studied with scanning electron microscopy, SEM (Quanta 400F, FEI Philips, USA), on 35-d-old samples.
2.2.3. Change in pH
⌅The
pH of paste samples was measured, initially on the fresh paste (time
~zero) and subsequently on hardened samples at 1 h, 24 h, and 7 d, with a
pH meter (pH/CON 300, Oakton Instruments, USA). The fresh pastes were
diluted by adding an equal mass of distilled water to obtain a more
repeatable reading. Hardened samples were ground with a mortar and
pestle, and pH was measured on suspensions of 10 g of ground paste and
10 g of distilled water (5050.
Mahyar, M. (2014) Room-temperature phosphate ceramics made with
afşin-elbistan fly ash. M.S. Thesis, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara, Turkey.
).
2.2.4 Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP)
⌅Mercury intrusion porosimetry, MIP (Poremaster 60, Quantachrome Instruments, USA) was used to analyze the pore size distribution of paste samples, cured at ~24 °C and ~35 % RH for 25 d. The maximum pressure was selected as 345 MPa. The contact angle and surface tension of mercury were assumed to be 140 ° and 480x10-3 N/m.
2.2.5. Temperature change
⌅The change in the temperature of the mixtures due to ongoing reaction was recorded using a semi-adiabatic setup (5151.
Bopegedera, A.M.R.P.; Nishanthi, K.; Perera, R. (2017) “Greening” a
familiar general chemistry experiment: coffee cup calorimetry to
determine the enthalpy of neutralization of an acid-base reaction and
the specific heat capacity of metals. J. Chem. Educ. 94 [4], 494-499. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00189.
).
Extruded polystyrene containers with lids (with an opening to introduce
materials and another for a thermocouple) were used. W/B was chosen as
0.45 to ensure adequate mixing. The recording was started, and FAOx and
borax were subsequently added to the water, and the mix was stirred for
60 s. The alkaline powder was then introduced, the obtained paste
stirred for another 60 s. The opening was shut, and temperature was
measured up to 30 min. The effect on temperature of introducing the
alkaline powder at different times (0, 1, 5, or 10 minutes) after mixing
FAOx and water was also investigated.
2.2.6. Water resistance
⌅The water resistance of the mortars was evaluated by determining the retained strength (%) after water submersion. The 28-d air-cured strength of each mixture was used as the reference strength. Specimens were then kept under water at ~24 °C for another 28 d, removed from water, their surfaces dried using a towel, and tested without delay (within minutes).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
⌅3.1 Setting times of oxalate mortars
⌅The setting times of the mixtures are given in Table 3.
Mixtures | Setting time without borax (min.) | Setting time with borax (min.) |
---|---|---|
MgOx-6/4 | 5.5 | 11.0 |
MgOx-7/3 | 6.5 | 12.0 |
SlOx-6/4 | 1.0 | 5.0 |
SlOx-7/3 | 1.0 | 6.0 |
MgSlOx | 2.0 | 5.0 |
SlOx mixtures have shorter setting times than MgOx mixtures. The
alkaline powder reacted with the acid salt affects the initial pH of
oxalate cement pastes (Figure 5),
which changes the relative amounts of the different oxalate species
present in the solution. SlOx pastes have higher initial pH and form
calcium oxalates while MgOx have lower initial pH and form magnesium
oxalates, resulting in the observed differences in setting time.
Addition of borax prolongs setting times of all mixtures. The mechanism
is likely similar for MgOx and SlOx to the retardation it causes in
MPCs. At low pH, tetraborate ions from borax dissolution are adsorbed on
the surface of MgO particles. This produces a layer which slows the
dissolution of MgO (5252.
Ma, C.; Wang, F.; Zhou, H.; Jiang, Z.; Ren, W.; Du, Y. (2021) Effect of
early-hydration behavior on rheological properties of borax-admixed
magnesium phosphate cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 283, 122701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122701.
).
3.2. Influence of mixture proportions on strength development
⌅The strength development of the mortars are compared in Figure 4.
The
very early-age (4 h) strengths of both types of mortars are < 8 MPa.
Although this appears low in comparison with the analogous MPC, most
such high early strengths reported for MPC are measured on pastes, which
allows very low W/B to be employed (2020.
Haque, M.A.; Chen, B.; Maierdan, Y. (2022) Influence of supplementary
materials on the early age hydration reactions and microstructural
progress of magnesium phosphate cement matrices. J. Clean. Prod. 333, 130086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130086.
, 2424. Mestres, G.; Ginebra, M.P. (2011) Novel magnesium phosphate cements with high early strength and antibacterial properties. Acta Biomater. 7 [4], 1853-1861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2010.12.008.
).
Initial comparisons indicate that oxalate cements have slightly greater
water need than phosphate cements. 1-d strength is higher for MgOx than
SlOx, reaching ~17.5 MPa for MgOx-7/3. The higher amount of borax used
in the SlOx mixtures contributes to the lower early strength. Borax not
only retards the reactions but also contributes some water (W/B becomes
~0.31 and ~0.33 for mixtures with 5 % and 10 % borax). MgOx mortars
reach their ultimate strengths at ~7 d, and MgOx-7/3 even shows a slight
drop in strength beyond 7 d. The fact that MgOx-6/4, which reaches >
30 MPa ultimate strength, does not show a similar drop in strength
after 7 d, suggests a critical magnesium-to-oxalate ratio may have been
exceeded in MgOx-7/3, leading to volume instabilities. The strength of
SlOx mortars reach 24-27 MPa, and MgSlOx, with an equal mass combination
of the two alkaline powders has the highest 28-d strength among all
mortars. More importantly, the strengths of all slag-containing mortars
have an upward trend from 7 d to 28 d, indicating their ultimate
strengths may be even higher. Much as early-age strength gain is related
with the formation of crystalline reaction products, later-age strength
is related with the formation of pore-filling amorphous phases and this
may explain the delayed but continuing strength gain of slag-bearing
mortars.
3.3. Change in pH
⌅The change in the pH of the pastes is compared in Figure 5. The increase of the low initial pH of acid-base paste mixtures is related with the amount of reaction hence corresponding neutralization.
The
initial pH of FAOx in water is low (~1), due to the dissolution of
oxalates in water. MgOx pastes have lower initial pH (1-2) than SlOx
pastes (~4). Initial pH is related to early mortar strength, higher for
SlOx than MgOx. For both mixture types, pH quickly rises as Mg2+ and Ca2+ from the dissolution of the alkaline powders react with the available
oxalate species (the oxalate and hydrogen oxalate anions). The pH of
MgOx rises quickly to 8-9 within 24 h, after which it more or less
plateaus, similar to the pH development reported for ferrous oxalate
cement pastes (3939.
Luo, Z.; Ma, Y.; He, H.; Mu, W.; Zhou, X.; Liao, W.; Ma, H. (2021)
Preparation and characterization of ferrous oxalate cement - A novel
acid-base cement. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 104 [2], 1120-1131. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17511.
).
The rise in pH is much less for SlOx, only to ~5, suggesting less
complete neutralization reactions, and explaining the lower 7 or 28 d
strengths. Despite little change in pH after 1 h for SlOx pastes,
strength increases up to 28 d (Figure 4).
The moderately acidic environment is hence suitable for continued
dissolution of slag particles and formation of more reaction products.
The ultimate pH of MgSlOx paste is ~7, in between the values for
MgO1500-only and slag-only pastes. This neutral value suggests a better
balance between acidic and alkaline starting powders and a lower amount
of materials left unreacted after the rapid reactions.
3.4. Influence of mixture proportions on mineralogy
⌅Figure 6 compares the mineralogical development of the pastes. MgOx pastes, as expected, contain a hydrated magnesium oxalate, glushinskite (MgC2O4·2H2O) as their main reaction products. Whewellite (CaC2O4·H2O) and quartz are also found in the final paste. Quartz carries from the unreacted part of FAOx. Whewellite is also present in FAOx but it is not clear whether it partly dissolves in the acidic condition achieved when FAOx is added to water and then reforms as pH increases. Also present are unreacted magnesia (periclase) and forsterite, coming from MgO1500. Small amounts of magnesiowüstite (FexMg1-xO), and magnesioferrite (Fe2MgO4) are also detected but their peaks partly overlap with those of whewellite and forsterite. The diffractograms of the SlOx pastes suggest whewellite and another calcium oxalate, weddellite (CaC2O4·2H2O), as well as a small amount of portlandite.
MAUD (5353. Lutterotti, L. (2000) Maud: a rietveld analysis program designed for the internet and experiment integration. Acta Cryst. A. 56, s54. https://doi.org/10.1107/S0108767300021954.
)
was used to analyze the 28-d XRD spectra using the Rietveld method.
Glushinskite, whewellite, periclase, quartz, and forsterite were
considered as the only phases existing in MgOx pastes. Whewellite,
weddellite, quartz, and portlandite are considered as the crystalline
phases in SlOx, with additional amorphous content. Diffraction data of
the selected phases taken from the “crystallography open database” were
loaded into MAUD. Background substraction, scaling, and noise
cancellation operations were performed. Analysis of MgOx-6/4 suggested
~35 % glushinskite, ~20 % whewellite, and ~25 % periclase, as well as ~4
% quartz and ~16 % forsterite. The fit parameter, Rw, was
7.1 %. The amorphous content of MgOx pastes was determined, using an
internal standard, to be negligible. For MgOx-7/3, slightly greater
amounts of the oxalates (~40 % glushinskite and ~25 % whewellite), and
less periclase (~18 %) are calculated, consistent with its higher
FAOx/MgO1500. The amounts of the remnant phases also change as expected,
quartz increases to 5 % and forsterite decreases to 11 %. Rw was calculated as 8.9 %. Further inspection of these results suggested
that the calculated amounts of phases may be slightly
under/overestimated. The amount of non-volatile oxides in the starting
mixture should equal their amounts in the final paste. For example, in
the starting mixture for MgOx-6/4, MgO is mostly in MgO1500, SiO2 is in MgO1500 (in Forsterite) and in FAOx (from FA), while CaO and C2O4 are mostly in FAOx. Since the amounts of each material in the starting mixture is known (Table 2), using the oxide composition for each (Table 1), and assuming FAOx contains 49 % FA and 51 % C2O4 (verified approximately by XRF tests), the amounts of glushinskite,
whewellite, periclase, quartz, and forsterite (total 100 %) that best
satisfy the “mass of oxide in initial mixture equals mass of oxide in
final paste” objective for MgO, SiO2, CaO, and C2O4 are calculated using the Solver add-in program in MS Excel as 35 %, 22
%, 18 %, 11 %, 14 %. Hence, there is probably a smaller amount of
(unreacted) periclase and a greater amount of quartz in the reacted
paste than quantified from the diffractogram in Figure 6a.
The same analysis for MgOx-7/3 calculates 38 %, 25 %, 10 %, 11 %, 14 %
for of glushinskite, whewellite, periclase, quartz, and forsterite,
again suggesting unreacted periclase was initially overestimated and
quartz was underestimated. This may be partly related with certain minor
phases not being considered for the quantification or measurement
parameters leading to insufficient intensity for some peaks i.e. low
signal-to-noise ratio. Reviewing these calculated amounts of each phase
and Tables 1 and 2,
it can be deduced that the amount of forsterite increases while quartz
decreases from the starting mixture to the final paste. Hence, some of
the quartz in FAOx (from FA) reacts with dissolved MgO1500 to form new
forsterite. It is unclear whether the forsterite initially available in
MgO1500 ever partly dissolves in the acidic solution. This makes it
difficult to calculate a degree of reaction for MgO1500. However, the
initial fractions of MgO1500 in the starting mixture and the final
unreacted periclase contents indicate that the degree of reaction of
MgO1500 is higher in MgOx-7/3 than in MgOx-6/4, consistent with its
higher 7-d strength (Figure 4,
ignoring the subsequent drop in strength due to durability problems).
Tracking MgO only (starting in MgO1500 and ending up in Glushinskite,
Forsterite, and unreacted Mg1500), degrees of hydration for MgO1500 in
MgOx-6/4 and MgOx-7/3 are 45 % and 55 %, respectively. Similar low
degrees of reaction for MgO have been reported for magnesium phosphate
cements (5454.
Yu, J.; Qian, J.; Wang, F.; Qin, J.H.; Dai, X.B.; You, C.; Jia, X.W.
(2020) Study of using dolomite ores as raw materials to produce
magnesium phosphate cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 253, 119147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119147.
).
The amorphous natures of the slag and some reaction products complicate
the quantitative interpretation of XRD for the SlOx and MgSlOx pastes.
The amorphous content in SlOx-7/3 is determined as ~45 %. Even if the
slag used is fully amorphous, this would mean part of the reaction
products, ~20 % of the total mass, is amorphous as well. The
weddellite/whewellite ratio is higher in SlOx-6/4 than in SlOx-7/3 as
expected due to its lower FAOx content (Figures 6c and d).
Whewellite is the more stable one of the two calcium oxalates. The
initial crystallization phase from aqueous solution is a calcium oxalate
trihydrate, which loses water of crystallization to either the
monohydrate or dihydrate, depending on conditions, such as the calcium
to oxalate ion ratio or the presence of substances which form complexes
with either calcium or oxalate ions, such as citric acid and magnesium (5555.
Gadd, G.M. (1999) Fungal production of citric and oxalic acid:
importance in metal speciation, physiology and biogeochemical processes. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 42, 47-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2911(08)60165-4.
).
Weddellite precipitates under excess of calcium ions in the medium.
This is consistent with no weddellite being detected in MgSlOx, which
contained much less slag, hence much less calcium, than either SlOx. The
total whewellite and weddellite content is ~46 % in SlOx-6/4 and ~49 %
in SlOx-7/3. The total amount of whewellite and weddellite that can be
formed can be estimated considering the total calcium in the slag and in
the fly ash used to produce FAOx. 1 g of the slag in Table 1 can produce 1.06 g whewellite or 1.17 g weddellite. Similarly, 1 g of FA in Table 1 can produce 0.60 g whewellite or 0.66 g weddellite. Assuming equal
amounts of each are formed, the maximum total amount of whewellite and
weddellite that can be produced in SlOx-6/4 is calculated as ~49 %.
Although the calculated total is below this value, it is probably high,
since it is unlikely that all the calcium forms one of the two calcium
oxalates.
3.5. Thermogravimetric analyses
⌅Figure 7 presents the mass loss and heat flow measured for paste samples heated to 900 °C.
Mass
loss takes place in three main steps for all pastes, which contrasts
with the one step decomposition of K-struvite in MPCs (5656. Chauhan, C.K.; Vyas, P.M.; Joshi, M.J. (2011) Growth and characterization of struvite-K crystal, Cryst. Res. Technol. 46 [2], 187-194. https://doi.org/10.1002/crat.201000587.
).
Although glushinskite decomposes in two steps, the presence of
whewellite coming from FAOx in the MgOx pastes causes a third mass loss
step. Figure 8 summarizes the decomposition steps for the calcium and magnesium
oxalates and the theoretical mass losses associated with each step (57-5957. Frost, R.L.; Weier, M.L. (2003) Thermal treatment of weddellite - a Raman and infrared emission spectroscopic study. Thermochim. Acta. 406 [1-2], 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(03)00259-4.
58. Stephens, W.E. (2012) Whewellite and its key role in living systems. Geol. Today. 28 [5], 180-185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2451.2012.00849.x.
59.
Frost, R.L.; Adebajo, M.; Weier, M.L. (2004) A Raman spectroscopic
study of thermally treated glushinskite--the natural magnesium oxalate
dihydrate. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 60 [3], 643-651. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1386-1425(03)00274-9.
).
Up to ~100 °C, mass loss is related with free water in all pastes. The rest of the mass loss in step 1 is due to loss of crystal water in the magnesium and calcium oxalates. Figures 7b and 7f show two mass loss peaks for MgOx, one at 150 °C due to the decomposition of whewellite and another at 210-220 °C (higher than suggested in Figure 8). For SlOx, the dominant loss peak is at ~160 °C, as expected for whewellite (Figures 7d and 7h). Although XRD suggests presence of weddellite, a related lower temperature peak is not observed. The second step (400-500 °C) is related with the decomposition of anhydrous magnesium and calcium oxalates. The break-down of MgC2O4 releases CO and CO2 leaving behind MgO. Decomposition of CaC2O4 releases CO and leaves behind CaCO3. The main peaks for SlOx (whewellite decomposition) in this step have shoulder peaks (weddellite decomposition) on their lower temperature sides, most noticeable for SlOx-7/3, in Figure 7h. The third step (600-800 °C) breaks down the remaining carbonate, releasing CO2.
3.6. Influence of mixture proportioning on the microstructure
⌅Figure 9 presents SEM images of reacted pastes.
Many loosely connected prismatic crystals of 4-5 µm size are observed in MgOx-6/4 among unreacted magnesia particles (Figure 9a). Crystals in MgOx-7/3 are smaller and cube-like (Figure 9b). SlOx shows smaller, mostly sub-micrometer crystals dispersed in a glassy background (Figures 9c and 9d). Notably, cracks are observed in MgOx-7/3 (Figure 9b), which could explain the strength loss recorded for this mixture from 7 to 28 d. In MgSlOx (Figure 9e), the amorphous material produced by reactions of the slag envelops the crystals, leading to a denser microstructure explaining the higher ultimate strength measured on mortar samples.
3.7. Pore size distribution and porosity
⌅Figure 10 presents the pore size distributions of the prepared pastes.
MgOx-6/4 has the lowest porosity (Figure 10a) among all mixtures. MgOx-7/3 has the highest of all mixtures which could be related with the cracks observed in Figure 9b. This paste also contains an unexpectedly high amount of pores of nearly 1 µm size which could be microcracks. All samples appear to contain two dominant sizes of pores, larger than ~0.1 µm and smaller than ~0.02 µm. Both MgOx pastes have greater average pore size than SlOx samples, as well as a wider range of pore sizes. The amorphous products in the slag-containing pastes may be refining their larger pores. Differences in the amount of small and large pores in Figure 10 may explain the differences in strength better than total porosity. MgSlOx, the paste with the highest strength, has a smaller amount of such large pores and a greater amount of smaller pores.
3.8. Temperature changes
⌅There are two distinct heat-evolving steps in the reactions of MgOx and SlOx: i) the wetting and dissolution of FAOx in water, and ii) the contact of the alkaline powder (MgO1500 or slag) with the FAOx and water mixture. The contact of the alkaline powder alone with water evolves heat but is insignificant in comparison with the other two steps. Figure 11a shows the change in temperature of the various oxalate pastes prepared. Temperature rises sharply by 7-8 °C when FAOx and water are mixed (time zero). This is considerable for the small paste volume (~7 cm3) used. After ~1 min, the slurry begins to cool slowly.
The addition of the alkaline powder creates a second (maximum) temperature peak. The time delay of the alkaline powder addition affects this maximum temperature. Figure 11b shows the change in this maximum temperature with the amount of time elapsed before adding the alkaline powder. A longer wait period reduces the overlap of the two separate heat-evolving events, and a slightly lower maximum temperature is recorded. However, the FAOx + water paste begins to stiffen in time hence a very long wait period may require additional water to be added, influencing hardened properties. MgOx pastes reach slightly higher temperatures than SlOx. The temperature peak occurs 2-3 min after all materials have been added. Hence, setting which takes place after 5-10 minutes follows the temperature peak with a minor delay.
3.9. Water resistance
⌅The resistance of MgOx, SlOx, and MgSlOx mortars to water are compared in Figure 12. MgOx mortars cured in air and then kept under water do not show significant changes in compressive strength (observed differences being within experimental uncertainty). In contrast, both SlOx mortars lose ~70 % of their air-dried strengths. This decrease could be related with the dissolution of the reaction products present. Hydraulic pressure inside pores within the sample could also negatively affect strength since these samples are tested immediately after removal from water, without any time to dry. Small increases in the strengths of MgOx-6/4 and MgSlOx may be due to continued reaction in mortars which had not reached their ultimate strengths prior to submersion in water.
3.10. Reaction mechanism of magnesium/calcium oxalate cements
⌅There
are two main steps in the reaction of MgOx cements with water. In the
first step, the dissolution of FAOx in water yields oxalate ion species
and H+, which makes the solution acidic. A diprotic acid, oxalic acid has pKa1 = 1.27 and pKa2 = 4.27. Hence, at the initial low pH of ~2 (Figure 5) more HC2O4 - and some H2C2O4 are present in the solution (3939.
Luo, Z.; Ma, Y.; He, H.; Mu, W.; Zhou, X.; Liao, W.; Ma, H. (2021)
Preparation and characterization of ferrous oxalate cement - A novel
acid-base cement. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 104 [2], 1120-1131. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17511.
).
In the second step, the periclase in MgO1500 begins to dissociate in the acidic solution and reacts with HC2O4 -. pH rises and HC2O4 - further dissociates into C2O4 2-. At pH~4-4.5, approximately equal amounts of HC2O4 - and C2O4 2- are present in the solution (3939.
Luo, Z.; Ma, Y.; He, H.; Mu, W.; Zhou, X.; Liao, W.; Ma, H. (2021)
Preparation and characterization of ferrous oxalate cement - A novel
acid-base cement. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 104 [2], 1120-1131. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17511.
).
The continued dissolution of MgO1500 (forsterite and periclase) releases amorphous silica and Mg2+ into solution (6060.
Qiushi, Z.; Xing, C.; Rui, M.; Shichang, S.; Lin, F.; Junhao, L.; Juan,
L. (2021) Solid waste-based magnesium phosphate cements: Preparation,
performance and solidification/stabilization mechanism. Constr. Build. Mater. 297, 123761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123761.
), resulting in a rapid increase in pH (the first hour in Figure 5). HC2O4 - and C2O4 2- react with the Mg2+ ions to form glushinskite (Figures 6a and 6b):
The role of Eqns. 4 and 5 in glushinskite formation depends on pH. As pH increases, Equation 5 predominates and glushinskite continues to precipitate at a slowing
pace. Unreacted periclase is found in the final solid, as well as quartz
and whewellite (CaC2O4.H2O) remaining from unreacted FAOx. In the case of SlOx, the reaction of slag in FAOx + water begins at pH ~ 4-5 where C2O4 2- is abundant in the solution. The acidic conditions lead to dissolution of Ca2+ from the slag which react with C2O4 2- to form weddellite (Figures 6c and 6d). Calcium ions can also come from whewellite in FAOx, the solubility of which increases markedly at pH < 5 (6161.
Gadd, G.M. (1999) Fungal production of citric and oxalic acid:
importance in metal speciation, physiology and biogeochemical processes. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 41, 47-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2911(08)60165-4.
). The reactions in SlOx can be simplified as:
3.11. Carbon neutrality and feasibility of MgOx and SlOx cements
⌅The
argument that oxalate cements can be carbon neutral or even negative
relies on the availability of oxalic acid produced from captured CO2.
Hence, a natural supposition is that carbon-negative oxalate cements
would be cost-prohibitive. Although production of oxalic acid from CO2 has been shown at the laboratory scale, since no large-scale production
exists, the overall cost of this step is not easy to predict (1515. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
).
However, simple calculations and various assumptions can be used to
estimate a rough cost and carbon footprint for MgOx and SlOx systems.
The production of the alkaline powder is the main contributor to the
carbon emissions related with oxalate cements. As stated in Section 2.2,
~1.5 g chemical and fuel related CO2 is emitted during the production of 1 g dead-burned MgO from pure MgCO3. Hence, FAOx:MgO1500 must be greater than 3 to obtain a carbon neutral or negative mixture. The CO2 emissions related with grinding, which are relatively small (6262.
Chen, C.; Habert, G.; Bouzidi, Y.; Jullien, A. (2010) Environmental
impact of cement production: detail of the different processes and
cement plant variability evaluation. J. Clean. Prod. 18 [5], 478-485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.12.014.
)
or with the preparation of FAOx (mainly heating and grinding) can
further increase this ratio. Conversely, this ratio can decrease if the
MgO used has a low carbon footprint, like one derived from seawater (6363. Turek, M.; Gnot, W. (1995) Precipitation of magnesium hydroxide from brine. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 34, 244-250. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie00040a025.
)
is used, or if a higher OxAc:FA is used to prepare FAOx. However,
varying OxAc:FA causes changes in the rate and heat of reaction of the
overall system. When slag is used as the alkaline powder, the main
factor that increases the CO2 footprint becomes the grinding
of granulated slag. Since the oxalate salt portion of the system remains
unchanged, SlOx cements can be carbon negative, as long as the
emissions due to grinding are below 1 g CO2 per 1 g ground
slag. This reinforces the importance of identifying a
low-carbon-footprint alkaline powder to replace dead-burned MgO in
making oxalate cements.
The cost of MgSlOx concrete is assessed (Table 4) by making assumptions about the unit costs of various materials or operations (1515. Erdoğan, S.T.; Bilginer, B.A.; Canbek, O. (2022) Preparation and characterization of magnesium oxalate cement. Engrxiv.https://doi.org/10.31224/2298.
). 300 kg of powder (MgO1500+slag+FAOx) is assumed per 1 m3 of concrete. Using the proportions in Table 2,
210 kg of the powder is FAOx, so ~153.3 kg OxAc (dihydrate) is needed
(~0.73 g OxAc is required to make 1 g of the FAOx in this study). The
production of OxAc from CO2 is not done at a large scale
outside of the lab, so it is most difficult to assign a cost to this
process. The current cost of sustainable OxAc production from CO2 (including the cost of CO2) was estimated in a European research Project (3434. Schuler, E.; Demetriou, M.; Shiju, N.R.; Gruter, G.J.M. (2021) Towards Sustainable Oxalic Acid from CO2 and Biomass. ChemSusChem. 14 [18], 3636-3664. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202101272.
) as > 1100 $/t. However the cost was projected to drop to < 450 $/t beyond 2030, with lower or negative CO2 cost (with incentives), a reduction in cell cost, and improved current
densities, and a reduced electricity price. Another study (3131. Fischer, J.; Lehmann, T.; Heitz, E. (1981) The production of oxalic-acid from CO2 and H2O. J. Appl. Electrochem. 11, 743-750. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00615179.
) estimated the cost of electrochemical production of OxAc from CO2 as being equal to the market price of oxalic acid made from other sources, which can be taken as 450-600 $/t (6464. Retrieved from: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Oxalic-Acid-Dihydrate-99-6-Price_11000003073704.html?s=p (accessed 3 January 2023).
). They did not include the cost of capturing CO2 needed to produce OxAc which is also difficult to estimate. As an
example, for one of the methods, direct air capture, Keith et al. (6565. Keith, D.W.; Holmes, G.; St. Angelo, D.; Heidel, K. (2018) A process for capturing CO2 from the atmosphere. Joule. 2 [8], 1573-1594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.05.006.
)
estimate levelized costs of 94-232 $/t. Based on these studies, 450
$/t, 750 $/t, and 1100 $/t are chosen as the unit price of OxAc made
from captured CO2. Hence, the cost of OxAc used to produce MgSlOx concrete becomes 69-168.6 $/m3.
Material /process | Amount in concrete (kg/m3) | Unit price ($/t) | Estimated cost ($/m3) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Intermediate | High | Low | Intermediate | High | ||
OxAc (includes CO2 capture) | 107.1 | 450 | 750 | 1100 | 69.0 | 115.0 | 168.6 |
(from 153.3 kg H2C2O4.2H2O) | |||||||
MgO1500 | 45 | 150 | 6.8 | ||||
Slag | 45 | 20 | 0.9 | ||||
Borax | 15 | 500 | 7.5 | ||||
FA | 102.9 | 20 | 2.1 | ||||
Production of FAOx | - | 15 | 3.2 | ||||
(heating 210 kg/m3) | |||||||
Aggregates | 2000 | 10 | 20 | ||||
Water | 150 | 5 | 0.8 | ||||
Total | 2465 | - | 110.1 | 156.1 | 209.8 |
A low-purity MgO1500 obtained like the one in this study, assumed to cost 150 $/t (6666. Retrieved from: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Magnesium-Oxide-Magnesium-Oxide-Magnesium-Oxide_62443248013.html?spm=a2700.7735675.normal_offer.d_title.37124a0chvbcqw&s=p (accessed 3 January 2023).
), adds another 6.8 $/m3 (four tenths of the powder binder is MgO1500). Costs of 20 $/t for ground slag (6767. Retrieved from: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Hot-Sell-China-Granulated-Blast-Furnace_62180223076.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normal_offer.d_title.f9817524mgz5Sq (accessed 3 January 2023).
), 10 $/t for aggregates, 5 $/t for mixing water (W/B = 0.5), and 500 $/t for borax are assumed. The cost of 102.9 kg/m3 FA (~49 % of FAOx) is assumed to be 2.1 $/m3 even though the FA in this study is a waste (not suitable for PC
concrete). The production cost of FAOx is assumed as 15 $/t by
comparison with similar low-temperature processes (e.g. production of
gypsum) which adds another 3.2 $/m3 (for 210 kg/m3 FAOx). The total cost of MgSlOx concrete becomes ~110-210 $/m3.
This does not consider mixing, delivery etc. which would have to differ
from PC systems because of differences in properties like setting time,
or profit. Similar calculations for MgOx-6/4 yield a cost range of
110-195 $/m3, slightly lower because of the decreased amount
of oxalic acid used. In comparison, ready-mixed concrete can cost >
150 $ in many developed countries (6868.
Federal reserve economic data, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis,
Producer price index by industry: ready-mix concrete manufacturing:
ready-mix concrete for west census region, St. Louis, MO. Retrieved
from: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PCU327320327320D (accessed 3 January 2023).
). These calculations show that the cost of oxalate cement is dominated by the cost of producing oxalates from captured CO2 and that changing the alkaline powder does not influence cost as much
as it does the carbon footprint. Nevertheless, the identification of an
effective low-carbon base may allow the amount of OxAc in these systems
to be slightly reduced and still achieve carbon neutrality (e.g.
FAOx/basic powder < 6:4) which could further decrease the overall
cost.
4. CONCLUSIONS
⌅The development of oxalate cements made with ground granulated blast furnace slag were introduced and compared with magnesium oxalate cements. The following conclusions were reached:
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The setting times of SlOx are shorter than those of MgOx. The use of borax can increase setting time > 10 min for MgOx.
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The final products in both systems are hydrated oxalates and unreacted raw materials. MgOx contains glushinskite and whewellite, while SlOx contains whewellite and weddellite. Microscopy reveals prismatic crystals of 3-5 µm size in MgOx. Slag-containing pastes contain smaller crystals in a glassy background.
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Unlike MgOx mortars which show greater early strength, SlOx mortars continue to gain strength beyond 7 d. MgSlOx hybrid mortar reaches ~37 MPa, the highest strength at 28 d.
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SlOx contains smaller pores (< 0.2 µm) than MgOx (< 1 µm). Despite their smaller pores, the resistance of SlOx to water is significantly lower than MgOx or MgSlOx.
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The final pH of the pastes is ~9 for MgOx and ~5 for SlOx. An equal part combination of the two alkaline powders gives MgSlOx a pH of ~7, indicating a better balance between acidic and alkaline components.
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Both slag and dead-burned magnesia can be reacted with oxalic acid salts to yield a fast-setting cement paste or mortar with medium strength. Replacement of dead-burned magnesia with slag reduces the CO2 footprint of the binder, which can be truly carbon neutral if made using oxalic acid made from captured CO2.